MAGNESIUM - Facts you should know

Magnesium Overview

 

 

Oral magnesium (Mg) supplements contain organic and/or inorganic Mg salts. Magnesium citrate is a highly considered organic form of Magnesium (Mg). Organic forms of Mg such as citrate are suggested to have higher bioavailability than inorganic forms.[1],[2],[3],[4],[5]

Mg is one of the most beneficial minerals for health as it’s a cofactor in over 300 enzymatic reactions and critically forms part of the Mg-adenosine 5-triphosphate (ATP) complex. Mg plays a role in anaerobic and aerobic energy production, cell signalling and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein synthesis.[6],[7],[8]

Additionally, Mg is essential for oxidative phosphorylation, maintaining cellular antioxidant status, muscle function, bone health and blood pressure regulation.[2],[6],[7],[9]

Signs of deficiency include neuromuscular and or nervous system dysfunction, muscle spasms, muscle weakness, fatigue, hyperirritability or excitability and associations with reduced insulin sensitivity.[2],[7]

Dietary factors that can influence Mg absorbability include sub-optimal protein intake, very high zinc supplementation, along with high phytate intake. Optimizing food preparation techniques may lessen the impact of high dietary phytate intake.  High coffee, sugar, salt, and alcohol intake can also negatively affect absorption.[2],[7],[10]

While there is currently no ideal marker for Mg status, Razzaque et al note red blood cell Mg may be a more sensitive marker of Mg than serum Mg.[3],[8]

Support Cardiovascular System Health

Outcomes from a double-blinded placebo-controlled pilot trial conducted over a 12-week timeframe reveal daily oral supplementation with 400 mg of Mg (as Mg citrate) resulted in decreased blood pressure along with significant reductions in glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) in participants with Metabolic Syndrome. Subjects presented with normal Mg ionized blood concentrations.13 Mg is associated with cardiovascular system health and may play a role in supporting insulin balance, lipid metabolism, endothelial function, and cardiac rhythm regulation. Mg deficiency may also raise the risk of thrombosis.[11],[12],[13],[14],[15],[16]

 

Support Nervous System Function

Mg plays an essential role within the nervous system by optimising nerve transmission and neuromuscular function. Mg additionally plays a role in tempering excitotoxicity. This is possibly due in part via its ability to obstruct the ion channel on the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor.[5],[9],[17] Some of these actions may explain the outcome of a systematic review that suggests Mg may have benefits in measures of subjective anxiety in susceptible groups.[18] Further well controlled trials are warranted.

Support Energy Production

Magnesium is a cofactor in numerous enzyme systems, playing a significant role in energy metabolism and production.[7],[19] When exercise is undertaken, Mg is moved to the areas where energy production occurs. Deficiency may therefore impact exercise performance. Studies show Mg supplementation may ameliorate parameters associated with exercise performance involving both anaerobic and aerobic activities.[22]

This important mineral is bound to ATP, forming the Mg-ATP complex. The process is actioned within the mitochondria where Mg is required for the conversion of inorganic phosphates and adenosine di-phosphate (ADP) to the molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP).  ATP transfers and stores energy within cells.[6],[7],[19] The regulation of energy production from the carbohydrate and fat metabolism also requires Mg for several reactions to occur.[20],[21]

Supports Muscle Health

Mg is a cofactor in enzymes systems that are involved in muscle contraction and relaxation.[6],[22] Serum Mg status is correlated with muscle performance in older adults. Proposed mechanisms include the role of Mg in energy metabolism and consequential increases in inflammatory processes and free radical production when Mg levels are low.[23] Low Mg status is also associated with a reduction in endurance performance in younger subjects, possibly due to increased oxygen needs when deficiency is present.[23] ,[24]

Helps Promote Bone Health

Significant Mg deficiency is associated with adverse outcomes related to bone health. Most of the total Mg body stores are housed within the bones.[25] Deficiency can result in bone crystal fragility and in the crystals becoming larger in size. Mg deficiency may also have detrimental effects on parathyroid hormone secretion, vascular supply, Vitamin D adequacy and inflammatory cytokine production, negatively impacting in bone health.[25],[26],[27],[28] Low Mg status has been associated with reduced bone density.[25],[26],[28],[29],[30],[31] Mg supplementation may support bone health.[26]

References

[1] Walker, A. F., Marakis, G., Christie, S., & Byng, M. (2003). Mg citrate found more bioavailable than other Mg preparations in a randomised, double-blind study. Magnesium research, 16(3), 183–191.

[2] Kappeler, D., Heimbeck, I., Herpich, C. et al. Higher bioavailability of magnesium citrate as compared to magnesium oxide shown by evaluation of urinary excretion and serum levels after single-dose administration in a randomized cross-over study. BMC Nutr 3, 7 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40795-016-0121-3

[3] Blancquaert, L., Vervaet, C., & Derave, W. (2019). Predicting and Testing Bioavailability of Magnesium Supplements. Nutrients, 11(7), 1663. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11071663

[4] Rylander R. Bioavailability of magnesium salts—A review. J. Pharm. Nutr. Sci. 2014;4:57–59. doi: 10.6000/1927-5951.2014.04.01.8.

[5] Fiorentini, D., Cappadone, C., Farruggia, G., & Prata, C. (2021). Magnesium: Biochemistry, Nutrition, Detection, and Social Impact of Diseases Linked to Its Deficiency. Nutrients, 13(4), 1136. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13041136

[6] Schwalfenberg, G. K., & Genuis, S. J. (2017). The Importance of Magnesium in Clinical Healthcare. Scientifica, 2017, 4179326. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/4179326

[7] Nutrient Reference Values Australia New Zealand. (2021). Magnesium. https://www.nrv.gov.au/nutrients/magnesium

[8] Razzaque M. S. (2018). Magnesium: Are We Consuming Enough?. Nutrients, 10(12), 1863. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10121863

[9] Kirkland, A. E., Sarlo, G. L., & Holton, K. F. (2018). The Role of Magnesium in Neurological Disorders. Nutrients, 10(6), 730. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10060730

[10] Mahalko JR, Sandstead HH, Johnson LK, Milne DB. Effect of a moderate increase in dietary protein on the retention and excretion of Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, P and Zn by adult males. Am J Clin Nutr 1983;37:8-14

[11] Rooney M.R., Alonso A., Folsom A.R., Michos E.D., Rebholz C.M., Misialek J.R., Chen L.Y., Dudley S., Lutsey P.L. Serum magnesium and the incidence of coronary artery disease over a median 27 years of follow-up in the atherosclerosis risk in communities (aric) study and a meta-analysis. Am. J. Clin.Nutr. 2020;111:52–60. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqz256.

[12] Murphy, C., Byrne, J., Keogh, J. B., Headland, M. L., & Clifton, P. M. (2021). The Acute Effect of Magnesium Supplementation on Endothelial Function: A Randomized Cross-Over Pilot Study. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(10), 5303. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105303

[13] Afitska, K., Clavel, J., Kisters, K., Vormann, J., & Werner, T. (2021). Magnesium citrate supplementation decreased blood pressure and HbA1c in normomagnesemic subjects with metabolic syndrome: a 12-week, placebo-controlled, double-blinded pilot trial. Magnesium research, 34(3), 130–139. https://doi.org/10.1684/mrh.2021.0489

[14] Shechter M., Merz C. N. B., Paul-Labrador M., et al. Oral magnesium supplementation inhibits platelet-dependent thrombosis in patients with coronary artery disease. The American Journal of Cardiology. 1999;84(2):152–156. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9149(99)00225-8. 

[15] Qu, X., Jin, F., Hao, Y., Li, H., Tang, T., Wang, H., Yan, W., & Dai, K. (2013). Magnesium and the risk of cardiovascular events: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. PloS one, 8(3), e57720. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0057720

[16] Pokan, R., Hofmann, P., von Duvillard, S. P., Smekal, G., Wonisch, M., Lettner, K., Schmid, P., Shechter, M., Silver, B., & Bachl, N. (2006). Oral magnesium therapy, exercise heart rate, exercise tolerance, and myocardial function in coronary artery disease patients. British journal of sports medicine, 40(9), 773–778. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2006.027250

[17] Pochwat, B., Szewczyk, B., Sowa-Kucma, M., Siwek, A., Doboszewska, U., Piekoszewski, W., Gruca, P., Papp, M., & Nowak, G. (2014). Antidepressant-like activity of magnesium in the chronic mild stress model in rats: alterations in the NMDA receptor subunits. The international journal of neuropsychopharmacology, 17(3), 393–405. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1461145713001089

[18] Boyle, N. B., Lawton, C., & Dye, L. (2017). The Effects of Magnesium Supplementation on Subjective Anxiety and Stress-A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 9(5), 429. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9050429

[19] Yamanaka, R., Tabata, S., Shindo, Y., Hotta, K., Suzuki, K., Soga, T., & Oka, K. (2016). Mitochondrial Mg(2+) homeostasis decides cellular energy metabolism and vulnerability to stress. Scientific reports, 6, 30027. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep30027

[20] Oregon State University. Linus Pauling Institute. Micronutrient Information Centre (2022) Magnesium. https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/minerals/magnesium

[21] Rude RK, Shils ME. Magnesium. In: Shils ME, Shike M, Ross AC, Caballero B, Cousins RJ, eds. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. 10th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006:223-247.

[22] Zhang, Y., Xun, P., Wang, R., Mao, L., & He, K. (2017). Can Magnesium Enhance Exercise Performance?. Nutrients, 9(9), 946. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9090946

[23] Dominguez, L. J., Barbagallo, M., Lauretani, F., Bandinelli, S., Bos, A., Corsi, A. M., Simonsick, E. M., & Ferrucci, L. (2006). Magnesium and muscle performance in older persons: the InCHIANTI study. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 84(2), 419–426. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/84.1.419

[24] Lukaski H. C. (2004). Vitamin and mineral status: effects on physical performance. Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angeles County, Calif.), 20(7-8), 632–644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2004.04.001

[25] Al Alawi, A. M., Majoni, S. W., & Falhammar, H. (2018). Magnesium and Human Health: Perspectives and Research Directions. International journal of endocrinology, 2018, 9041694. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9041694

[26] Castiglioni, S., Cazzaniga, A., Albisetti, W., & Maier, J. A. (2013). Magnesium and osteoporosis: current state of knowledge and future research directions. Nutrients, 5(8), 3022–3033. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5083022

[27] Braun L, Cohen M.(2014) Herbs and Natural Supplements Volume 2, Magnesium. Churchill Livingstone, Australia, 21st of November 2014, 4th Edition, P. 685

[28] Rondanelli, M., Faliva, M. A., Tartara, A., Gasparri, C., Perna, S., Infantino, V., Riva, A., Petrangolini, G., & Peroni, G. (2021). An update on magnesium and bone health. Biometals : an international journal on the role of metal ions in biology, biochemistry, and medicine, 34(4), 715–736. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10534-021-00305-0

[29] Saito N., Tabata N., Saito S., et al. Bone mineral density, serum albumin and serum magnesium. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2004;23(6):701S–703S. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2004.10719412.

[30] Mahdavi-Roshan M., Ebrahimi M., Ebrahimi A. Copper, magnesium, zinc and calcium status in osteopenic and osteoporotic post-menopausal women. Clinical Cases in Mineral and Bone Metabolism. 2015;12(1):18–21. doi: 10.11138/ccmbm/2015.12.1.018

[31] Czeczuk A., Huk-Wieliczuk E., Dmitruk A., Poplawska H. An analysis of selected risk factors of osteoporosis – dietary patterns and physical activity – in pubescent girls from the Lubelskie province. Przegla̧d Epidemiologiczny. 2017;71(1):99–110